Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan, GIH

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Biomechanics of Lower Limb Loading During High-Force and Sports-related Movements
Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, GIH, Department of Physiology, Nutrition and Biomechanics.ORCID iD: 0009-0004-0230-3061
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

The current thesis is a joint venture between the Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences and Ski Team Sweden Alpine and Skicross, with the aim of improving return to sport (RTS) procedures.

High-force lower limb dominant sports movements (e.g., alpine skiing) place substantial demands on the lower limbs and their associated tissues. When these loads exceed the tissue’s tolerance, injuries occur. RTS after a knee injury requires risk assessment and acceptance of the risk. To enable informed decision-making, data regarding tissue healing (tissue strength), task-specific tissue loading (tissue stress), and risk-modifying factors are essential. The main knowledge gap concerns how different movements affect joint tissue loading and how to assess joint readiness for high-force, sports-specific activities. This thesis investigates how different tests may be applied to quantify joint readiness for RTS.

Study I demonstrated that isokinetic knee extension tests exhibited low concurrent validity with asymmetries observed in explosive movements (jumps). Study II shows that lower limb stiffness is a valid method for assessing stiffness and proposes a novel approach to quantifying joint stiffness. Study III reveals that asymmetries based on ground reaction forces greatly underestimate asymmetries in knee joint loading. Study IV shows that this discrepancy between ground reaction force and knee joint reaction force is primarily due to the contribution of muscle forces.

The findings suggest that baseline testing is crucial in sports and that jump tests are reliable, accurate, and feasible to include in such assessments. Lower limb stiffness should be analysed during these tests, alongside asymmetries in stiffness and force. Symmetry should be considered a universal goal, as even minor asymmetries can have significant consequences for joint loading. Muscle forces and recruitment strategies greatly influence joint loading; thus, optimising muscle balance and neuromuscular coordination should be prioritised in training and rehabilitation. Musculoskeletal modelling provides a valuable method for understanding load distribution, and its integration into testing protocols is strongly recommended. This is especially important within alpine skiing due to the potentially severe consequences if an incidence occur, therefore lower tolerance of asymmetries, compensations and performance insufficiencies should be allowed for alpine skiers. Application of baseline jump tests collecting both kinetics with dual force plates and kinematics with markerless motion-capture together with increased analysis could significantly improve RTS procedures and maybe decrease adverse incidences during RTS.

Abstract [sv]

Doktorandprojektet är ett samarbetsprojekt mellan GIH och STSA, med syftet att förbättra rutinerna kring återgång till idrott efter knäskada (RTS).

Idrotter som belastar nedre extremitet såsom utförsåkning, utsätter leder och ledvävnader i nere extremitet för hög stress. När applicerad stress är högre än vävnadens stresstolerans uppstår en skada. Beslutsfattandeprocessen för RTS bör vara baserat både på relevant informationsbild och strategiska perspektiv, vilket kräver information om vävnadsläkning (vävnadsstyrka) samt hur olika idrottsrelaterade och idrottsspecifika rörelser belastar vävnaden (vävnadsstress). Utöver detta tillkommer andra faktorer som påverkar risk och risktolerans. Avhandlingen undersöker hur olika tester kan användas för att kvantifiera individens beredskap för olika belastningar.

Studie I: Utvärderade konceptet höger-vänster symmetri (ILS) och jämförde reliabilitet och precision för ILS beroende på testtyp. Resultatet indikerade att ILS är förekommande hos oskadade deltagare, att ILS har stor variation beroende på uppgift och test, samt att ILS från isokinetisk knäextension uppvisade låg validitet jämfört med idrottsrelaterade rörelser såsom hopp. Studie II: Utvärderade konceptet stiffness, och jämförde olika metoder för att beräkna stiffness. Studien visade att metoden lower limb stiffness (LLS) är en giltig metod för att undersöka styvhet samt föreslår en ny metod för att analysera joint stiffness. Studie III: Utvärderade sambandet mellan asymmetrier i markreaktionskrafter (GRF) och knäledsreaktionskrafter (KJRF). Studien visade att GRF kraftigt underskattar KJRF vilket i sin tur leder till en felaktig riskbedömning om beslut enbart baseras på GRF. Studie IV: Utvärderade metoder för att beräkna KJRF, genom att jämföra traditionell inversdynamik (V3D) med muskuloskeletal modulering (MSM). Studien visade att V3D kraftigt underskattar KJRF och att muskelkrafter till stor del förklarar skillnaderna mellan metoderna vilket innebär att MSM bör användas vid bedömning av vävnadsbelastning. 

Slutsatser från avhandling: Förmåga till symmetrisk rörelse är viktig för att fördela laster inom kroppen. Studie I betonar vikten av kontinuerlig testning för att skapa en baslinje som kan användas efter skada för att utvärdera beredskap. Studie III visar dessutom att små asymmetrier i GRF kan leda till betydelsefulla skillnader i ledbelastning som orsakas av muskelrekrytering och muskelkrafter. Utifrån resultat från studie I och IV så bör acceptans av asymmetri vara låg samt att idrottarens muskelrekryteringsstrategier bör optimeras för att minska negativ effekt av yttre belastning. Studie II visade att LLS är tillämpbar, och kan ge värdefull information kring individens neuromuskulära funktion samt sen-muskelsamspel och bör därför inkluderas vid testning. Studie IV visar att data kring både kinetik (krafter) och kinematik (rörelser) bör analyseras vid testning samt att MSM erbjuder ett kraftfullt verktyg för att förstå belastningsfördelning i kroppen och utvecklingsarbete bör genomföras för att möjliggöra användandet av MSM inom idrott och idrottsmedicin.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan, GIH , 2025. , p. 149 s.
Series
Avhandlingsserie för Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan ; 38
National Category
Sport and Fitness Sciences
Research subject
Medicine/Technology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:gih:diva-8790ISBN: 978-91-988127-9-4 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:gih-8790DiVA, id: diva2:1992792
Public defence
2025-09-19, Aulan, Lidingövägen 1, Stockholm, 13:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-08-28 Created: 2025-08-28 Last updated: 2025-09-23Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Interlimb symmetry: A critical examination of the threshold concept during isometric and isokinetic knee extension and leg press, and isointertial jumps
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Interlimb symmetry: A critical examination of the threshold concept during isometric and isokinetic knee extension and leg press, and isointertial jumps
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Sport and Fitness Sciences
Research subject
Medicine/Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:gih:diva-8787 (URN)
Note

At the time of Jonas Enqvist's dissertation this manuscript was submitted.

Available from: 2025-08-28 Created: 2025-08-28 Last updated: 2025-09-16
2. Assessing lower extremity stiffness in countermovement jumps: a critical analysis of the differences between calculation methods.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Assessing lower extremity stiffness in countermovement jumps: a critical analysis of the differences between calculation methods.
2024 (English)In: Sports Biomechanics, ISSN 1476-3141, E-ISSN 1752-6116, p. 1-21Article in journal (Refereed) Epub ahead of print
Abstract [en]

INTRODUCTION: Stiffness (k) describes a material's resistance to deformation and is useful for understanding neuromuscular function, performance, and injury risk. The aim of this study is to compare the lower limb stiffness method (kLLS), which uses only force plate data, with methods combining force plate and motion capture data to calculate stiffness during the eccentric phase of a countermovement.

MATERIAL AND METHODS: Twelve resistance-trained males: age 24.9 (4.4) years, height 1.81 (0.05) m, weight 88.2 (14) kg) performed three maximal effort countermovement jumps (CMJ). Data were collected synchronously using three-dimensional (3D) kinematic and kinetic data (dual force plate setup). Lower limb stiffness (z), joint stiffness (x, y, and z), and leg stiffness (linear, sagittal plane, and 3D) were calculated for the eccentric phase of all CMs.

RESULTS: kLLS showed high concurrent validity with strong correlations to kinetic-kinematic methods (r = 0.90-0.97, p < 0.05). A linear mixed model revealed no significant differences in k-values between kLLS and leg stiffness, indicating high concurrent validity.

DISCUSSION: kLLS offers valid and valuable information affecting performance, injury risk, and return-to-sport decisions.

CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that kLLS is a valid method for calculating stiffness in CMJs and equal to 3D leg stiffness.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Taylor & Francis, 2024
Keywords
Jumping, kinematics, kinetics, stiffness
National Category
Sport and Fitness Sciences
Research subject
Medicine/Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:gih:diva-8341 (URN)10.1080/14763141.2024.2393198 (DOI)001314066000001 ()39279737 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2024-10-04 Created: 2024-10-04 Last updated: 2025-09-16
3. Ground reaction force asymmetry underestimates asymmetries in knee joint reaction forces during countermovement jumps
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Ground reaction force asymmetry underestimates asymmetries in knee joint reaction forces during countermovement jumps
2025 (English)In: Journal of Biomechanics, ISSN 0021-9290, E-ISSN 1873-2380, Vol. 189, article id 112834Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Inter-limb asymmetry in function or performance is an external measure used in sports science and medicine assessing readiness. How asymmetries propagate and affect internal joint loading is, however, poorly understood. This study presents the first investigation of asymmetries in ground reaction forces and knee joint reaction forces during a countermovement jump. Eleven uninjured male participants performed three countermovement jumps. Forces and motion were analysed in the Anybody Modelling System. Total resultant knee joint reaction force (KJRF[R]) was six times higher than the total resultant ground reaction force (GRF[R]) and the magnitude of the interlimb asymmetry was 6.6 times higher for KJRF[R] than GRF[R] indicating a significantly (p < 0.05) higher load in the joint structures of the dominant knee than the non-dominant knee. KJRF[AP] reached 1743 +/- 556 (877-2910) N in the posterior direction at a knee angle of 105 degrees, representing a load carried solely by the passive structures of the knee together with the articular contact surfaces. Even a small asymmetry determined through external measures such as GRF, therefore had a high impact on joint loading. Previously used thresholds (10 % deficit) for return to sport may therefore be questioned, and lower thresholds may be relevant to prevent injuries in the dominant limb.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2025
Keywords
Inter-limb symmetry, Knee joint reaction force, Counter movement jump, Knee, Biomechanics, Return to sport
National Category
Sport and Fitness Sciences Orthopaedics
Research subject
Medicine/Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:gih:diva-8768 (URN)10.1016/j.jbiomech.2025.112834 (DOI)001531538200001 ()40592095 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-105009349845 (Scopus ID)
Note

This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Available from: 2025-08-15 Created: 2025-08-15 Last updated: 2025-09-16
4. The contribution of muscle forces on the magnitude of knee joint reaction forces in biomechanical models
Open this publication in new window or tab >>The contribution of muscle forces on the magnitude of knee joint reaction forces in biomechanical models
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Sport and Fitness Sciences
Research subject
Medicine/Technology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:gih:diva-8788 (URN)
Note

At the time of Jonas Enqvist's dissertation this manuscript was submitted.

Available from: 2025-08-28 Created: 2025-08-28 Last updated: 2025-09-16

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