Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan, GIH

The identification and development of talent is a key concern for many dance educators, yet little research has been conducted in the area. In order to understand better how to optimise dance talent development among young people, systematic and rigorous research is needed. This paper summarises and discusses the key findings of a ground-breaking longitudinal interdisciplinary research project into dance talent development. Over two years, almost 800 young dancers enrolled at one of the eight nationwide Centres for Advanced Training (CATs) participated in the project. Physical factors, psychological characteristics, and injury data were collected quantitatively while the students' thoughts and perspectives on commitment, creativity and cultural variables were captured using qualitative methods. The largest study of its kind, the project yielded a wide range of findings with a number of practical implications. The main focus of this paper is on how the project findings apply to important pedagogic topics such as audition criteria, passion and commitment, and teaching behaviour. The area of talent identification and development is complex, yet this research has begun to shed new light on the notion of talent and has provided novel insights to support its development.

Little is known about the predictors of adherence in a dance context. The aim of this study was to investigate adherence to a dance talent programme using a multidisciplinary set of variables representing psychological correlates of adherence, maturation and physical factors relating to dance talent. Psychological (passion, motivational climate perceptions, eating attitudes), physical competence (vertical jump height, handgrip strength, hamstring flexibility, external hip rotation, aerobic fitness), and maturation-related (age of menarche) variables were gathered from female students enrolled on a dance talent programme. Participation behaviour (adherence/dropout) was collected from the talent programme's records approximately two years later. Logistic regression analysis of 287 participants revealed that greater levels of harmonious passion predicted greater likelihood of adherence to the programme, and greater ego-involving motivational climate perceptions predicted less likelihood of adherence. Neither measures of physical competence nor maturation distinguished adhering from dropout participants. Overall, the results of this study indicate that psychological factors are more important than physical competence and maturation in the participation behaviour of young talented dancers.

Commitment to an activity forms an essential part of the talent development process, yet little is known about the reasons why young people commit to dance training. The aim of this study was to investigate the factors that affect young dancers’ commitment to a selective dance talent scheme. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 committed dancers and transcripts were content analysed. Enjoyment was the most important factor relating to commitment, and stemmed from several sources such as self-expression, movement sensations and feelings associated with performing. Relationships with dance peers and teachers, parental support and the opportunities available on the scheme also enhanced commitment. While some potential barriers to participation were identified, such as concerns about injury, these seemed insufficient to affect the participants’ commitment. The results of the study may help educators to develop young dancers’ talents optimally by enhancing their commitment to training. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Classical ballet training has been criticized for prioritizing technical excellence over creativity,despite 21st century dancers needing to be strong in both aspects. The aim of this study was toinvestigate professional choreographers’ views on (a) how ballet training inspired vs. inhibitedtheir creativity and (b) potential gender differences in this regard. Eight choreographers (50%female) participated in semi-structured interviews, with transcripts analyzed using thematicanalysis. The key theme was created from accounts of how ballet training impacted on interviewees’Intrinsic motivation to create, fed into by experiences of Autonomy, Variety andOpportunities. Experiences of significant autonomy thwarting were considered to have inhibitedcreativity; this was one of several areas of gender difference, and a reason for participants topursue choreography rather than stay employed as dancers. In following the emergentRecommendations for schools, it is possible that Intrinsic motivation to create could be betternurtured in ballet training.

While there is a lack of research into abuse in elite dance, numerous allegations of emotional, sexual and physical abuse of dancers can be found anecdotally in the media, legal convictions and personal accounts. As more dancers speak out, the scale of the problem within preprofessional schools and professional companies is becoming apparent. Accordingly, effective safeguarding mechanisms for preventing, identifying and reporting abuse are urgently needed. This viewpoint is intended to raise health professionals' awareness of factors contributing to abusive practices found in dance environments and the potential clinical implications of abuse to dancers' health and well-being. We also call for research and policy engagement on safeguarding and abuse prevention designed and implemented in partnership with stakeholders, aiming to promote safe and positive dance environments for all.

Despite the intense and long-standing interest surrounding early sport specialisation, scholars still debate its nature and implications. Previous researchers have also identified the need for further research relating to the psychological aspects of early specialisation such as lower quality motivation, dropout and burnout. To help guide future research it is important to build upon the quantitative literature concerning such psychological aspects of early specialisation. The specific aims of this paper are to provide an overview of research results of quantitative studies that set out to explore relationships between early specialisation and psychological aspects, and to critically examine the designs of such studies. As such, study design characteristics including participant demographics, the psychological aspects represented, and the research questions and results are explored. Data searches were conducted in PubMed, SportDiscus, and PsychINFO using search terms such as "early sport speciali*". Twenty-one relevant papers met the inclusion criteria. The results highlight that the published papers in this area are broad in some respects (variety of sports, performance levels, and gender), but narrow in others (North American dominance, few psychological aspects explored, and few papers per psychological aspect). Many of the studies are based on cross-sectional and retrospective self-reports. Overall, this paper serves as a foundation on which to design future research studies in this area.

The methodological underpinnings of studies into early specialization have recently been critiqued. Previous researchers have commented on the variety of, and over-simplified, methods used to capture early specialization. This exploratory study, therefore, suggests a new direction for how early specialization can be conceptualized and measured. We aim to create an index approach whereby early specialization is measured as a continuous variable, in line with commonly used definitions. The continuous variable for degrees of early specialization is calculated from a questionnaire which captures the four key components of early specialization; (1) intensity, (2) year-round training, (3) single sport, and (4) commencing age 12 or younger. The proposed index approach is illustrated in a sample of 290 Swedish aesthetic performers aged 12-20 years (M = 15.88), whose descriptive statistics are used to discuss the suitability and usability of the measure. The proposed index approach functions as a guideline to future researchers. We hope that introducing a new index approach we will encourage further discussion around the measurement of early specialization. Additionally, we hope to pave the way for future research to explore more complex research questions.

Early specialisation is largely advised against, partly due to the postulated negative motivational implications. However, early specialisation is commonly considered necessary for high-level performance in aesthetic activities, such as gymnastics and dance. The present study, therefore, explores the relationship between motivation and early specialisation in a sample of Swedish aesthetic performers, from a self-determination theory perspective. The aims of this study were twofold: (1) to identify whether early specialisation is associated with motivation (autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and dropout intentions) within a sample of aesthetic performers, and (2) to investigate if such relationships are moderated by perceptions of parental influence. Two hundred and ninety high-level aesthetic performers (M=15.88 years old, SD=2.34; 83% female) were recruited from Swedish clubs and schools to complete a questionnaire pack. The questionnaire pack included questions concerning demographic information, specialisation history, motivation, dropout intentions, and perceptions of parental influence. The results of our analyses do not support the claims that early specialisation is associated with negative motivational implications. In fact, the results show that those who reported a higher degree of specialisation ≤ 12 years old reported less controlled motivation than those who reported a lesser degree of early specialisation. Additionally, perceptions of parental influence were not found to moderate the relationship between early specialisation and motivation. These results are discussed in relation to the growing critique regarding the conceptualisation and measurement of early specialisation in sport literature.

Previous research largely advises against early specialisation, due to possible physical and psychological risks (Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort,2009). For this study, we are interested in exploring gymnasts’ reflections of early specialisation in relation to motivation and autonomy.Despite limited empirical evidence, early specialisation is commonly considered necessary for high-level performance in aestheticactivities, such as gymnastics (Kliethermes et al., 2021). This study is one of the first to present qualitative data concerning experiencesof early specialisation, and the first known study to collect such data within female gymnasts.The research questions for this study are, 1) What motivated female gymnasts to remain in early specialised training? 2) How do theyreflect upon key specialisation milestones in relation to motivation and autonomy? and 3) How do they reflect upon the necessity of earlyspecialisation? The study is underway, with semi-structured interviews being conducted with female gymnasts aged 15-24 who selfreported a high degree of early specialisation. Specifically, those who reported reaching specialisation milestones at the youngest ageswere recruited from a database of 115 high-level gymnasts. The data will be analysed using abductive thematic analysis, where selfdetermination theory provides a framework to explore the interplay between early specialisation and motivation towards continuedparticipation in gymnastics.It is anticipated that the results will contribute valuable data regarding experiences of early specialisation, and how these experiencesmight influence motivation towards continued training. Such data also has the potential to shed light on the often-inconsistent quantitativeresults exploring motivational correlates of early specialisation.

In this small-scale study we investigated ballet teachers’ views and experiences of autonomy and autonomy support. For this purpose, we conducted semi-structured interviews with six ballet teachers in a prestigious pre-professional ballet school in Europe. Findings indicate that when and how autonomy was provided seemed to be impacted by whether a teacher either challenged or adhered to ballet ideals. By using the Circumplex Model of motivation, three different levels of autonomy support could be identified: high autonomy support, moderate autonomy support, and controlling approaches. The findings present a nuanced picture of ballet teachers’ views, experiences, and teaching styles and suggest that dance educators move on a continuum of autonomy supportive and controlling behaviors.

INTRODUCTION: Dancers are expected to navigate major challenges in their careers that might take a toll on their physical and mental health. To address underlying factors that might increase dancers' mental and physical health difficulties, research suggests the systematic use of techniques to build mental skills that can reduce risk factors and enhance protective factors against the challenges dancers encounter. However, existing mental skills training interventions in dance present a lack of consistency in design, content and duration, making it difficult to provide evidence-based recommendations. Hence, dance researchers and practitioners would benefit from a mixed methods systematic review (MMSR) of the why, what and how of these interventions. Adopting tools such as the Template for Intervention Description and Replication (TIDieR) can aid this endeavour by describing replicable aspects of interventions, thus offering dance researchers suggestions on how to understand, appraise and report intervention characteristics and processes in dance. Therefore, this protocol outlines a MMSR that will employ TIDieR to identify and assess characteristics of mental skills interventions in dance.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS: A systematic search will be undertaken in Psycinfo, Medline, Embase, Sportdiscus, Web of Science and the first 30 pages of GoogleScholar. Following the search, two reviewers will independently screen identified studies in Covidence. One reviewer will extract data using the TIDieR framework and the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) for quality appraisal, while a second reviewer will check a sample of extracted studies for accuracy. A convergent integrated synthesis will be conducted where quantitative and qualitative evidence will be integrated by qualitising the quantitative data into textual descriptions.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: There is no requirement for ethical approval for this systematic review as no empirical data will be collected. The findings will be disseminated through a peer-reviewed publication in a scientific journal and presentations in several different forums (eg, a dance psychology network, at scientific and applied conferences).

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42024537249.

The understanding of the significance of movement to learning benefits from advances in neuroscience. This study considered a neurophysiological perspective in relation to the educational theory of Accelerated Learning (AL) for which little empirical evidence exists. Childhood development themes and learning strategies from a neurophysical-psychological viewpoint were investigated through the use of developmental dance movement (DDM) as a kinaesthetic tool over an eight-session programme with three early years practitioners and two reception classes in two UK primary schools. The research strategy included both qualitative and quantitative methods to capture examples of accelerated learning and transfer. Qualitative data from three semi-structured interviews with early years practitioners was based on their observations of intervention sessions on a whole-group level and selected case studies of children in their class. The data were analysed with the aim of addressing their views on the children’s learning, which influenced and elucidated the practitioners own learning outcomes. Quantitative methods utilised the Goodenough–Harris draw-a-person test with participating children to explore change in visual-motor integration and developmental maturity as a measure of accelerated learning and transfer. Findings supported neuroscientific research and highlighted useful and contradictory aspects of AL theory. Practitioners were able to identify benefits for pupils with specific learning needs. Case studies demonstrated accelerated learning through observed changed behaviour. T-test results from Aston index pre-post scored drawings showed significant differences (p = 0.005) in visual-motor integration and developmental maturity. It is concluded that DDM can provide opportunity for physical/cognitive advancement for young children.

The purpose of the present study was to explore perceptions of shared reality in teacher-student partnerships in ballet, and how these perceptions were related to experiences of quality in the relationship and well-being. A longitudinal qualitative study design was adopted, with three female ballet students and their teacher participating in three semi-structured interviews each over an eight-month period. Data were analyzed using a combination of thematic and narrative analysis. Findings indicated that across the teacher-student relationships there were perceptions of a shared reality only on the professional and distanced level and not on a relational and personal level. This was achieved by a common experience of what matters in the world of ballet education as well as students finding their teacher as trustworthy. Furthermore, it appeared that the authoritarian apprenticeship culture in ballet, where the teachers give clear instructions and feedback, and where the student role is to listen and adapt to the teacher's instructions, was a barrier to fully achieving a shared reality on a personal and deeper level. In turn, this influenced the quality of the relationship and the wellbeing of both teacher and students. The present study offers critical reflections on the cultural backdrop of teaching and learning in ballet and highlights the importance of teachers to facilitate a supportive, unconditional, and trustworthy relationship so that they can work together in a more productive manner.

This study explored the motivational experiences of nine successful elite performers in ballet, music, and swimming at Norwegian talent development (TD) schools. Semistructured interviews were conducted. Thematic analysis revealed that the performers navigated within and between several contextual layers, characterized by egalitarian values, high-performance deliberate practice, and controlling conditions. These TD learning conditions provided multifaceted motivational experiences that affected performers' motivational regulation, ranging from predominantly self-determined, via multifaceted, to predominantly controlled. The types of motivational regulation mattered, as performers regulated by self-determined motivation engaged in their performance development in a more joyful, robust, and healthy way (i.e., self-realization, flow, self-esteem, and vitality), showing less dependence on their given TD learning conditions. In contrast, performers regulated by controlled motivation reported higher vulnerability, and in turn, more ill-being (i.e., low self-esteem, perfectionism, obsessiveness, anxiety, negative affect, and exhaustion).

Conceptualized within the framework of self-determination theory, the aim of the current study was to investigate the relation between perfectionistic concerns and (a) controlled (non-self-determined) motivation and (b) performance anxiety through basic psychological need frustration (frustration of competence, autonomy, and realtedness), and if these relations would be moderated by controlling teaching/coaching conditions. We used a cross-sectional moderated mediation design and purposefully selected Norwegian elite junior performers (N = 171; mean age = 17.3; SD age = 0.94) from talent development schools, who completed an online questionnaire to report their perceptions of the study variables. Associations were examined using structural equation modeling. The results showed that perfectionistic concerns were positively associated with controlling conditions, basic needs frustration, controlled motivation, and performance anxiety. Reported controlling teaching/coaching conditions moderated the positive indirect relationship between perfectionistic concerns and (a) controlled motivation and (b) performance anxiety through competence need frustration. Specifically, these indirect associations were evident for performers reporting moderate or high levels of controlling teaching/coaching conditions. In contrast, there were no indirect associations via competence need frustration for those performers who reported low levels of controlling conditions. In conclusion, the results indicate that perfectionistic concerns appear to be a vulnerability factor that exposes elite junior performers to higher risks of entering a debilitative motivational process. This seems especially likely when exposed to controlling teaching/coaching conditions. Coaches and teachers working with elite junior performers should avoid using controlling mechanisms and instead foster autonomous functioning.

Ballet training is designed to develop creative, expressive artists. However, an explicit approach to technical instruction may not assist in the development of individual creativity and may encourage counterproductive perfectionistic goals. This paper describes a five-day intervention designed to enhance creativity in thirteen adolescent vocational ballet students at an elite ballet school in Stockholm, Sweden. The intervention focused on implicit learning and sensori-kinetic imagery. Wilcoxon Signed Rank Tests indicated significant increases for creativity perceptions and implicit sources of evaluation, and reductions in perfectionistic cognitions. Case study interviewees, representing the most and least perfectionistic students, reported heightened creativity, enjoyment and, in some cases, a strengthened sense of autonomy and self-regulation. The combination of quantitative and qualitative data forms a convincing case that even a short intervention based on implicit learning strategies and sensori-kinetic imagery can enhance perceptions of creativity and reduce perfectionistic cognitions in ballet class.

The aim of this study was to examine how dance teachers work with psychological skills with their students in class. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six female professional teachers in jazz, ballet and contemporary dance. The interview transcripts were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (Smith 1996

38.           Smith ,  J.A.    1996 .  Beyond the divide between cognition and discourse: usinginterpretative phenomenological analysis in health psychology .   Psychology and Health  ,  11 :  261 – 271 .   [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®]View all references). Results revealed that all teachers used psychological skills training techniques such as goal setting and imagery and worked toward the following outcomes: group cohesion, self-confidence, and anxiety management. They strove to create a task-involving climate in their classes and the students were encouraged to participate in, for instance, the goal setting process and imagery applications. The teachers also placed significant emphasis on performance preparation, evaluation, and feedback, although some found it difficult to give positive feedback. Many of the findings can be associated with contemporary theories in sport psychology. However, the dance teachers had almost no formal training in performance psychology, but had instead developed their teaching methodology through their own experiences. Further skills development and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Performance anxiety is a major issue for performing artists. This qualitative paper extends our recent mixed-methods collective case study showing the beneficial effects of psychological interventions for managing performance anxiety, tailored in individual coaching settings. Here, we report on participants’ experiences of being coached, their understanding of how and why the interventions were effective, and the researcher-coach's experiences. Ten performing artists received five individual coaching sessions and were interviewed about their experiences pre- and post-intervention. A qualitative synthesis of transcripts of sessions and interviews, and of the coach's field notes and journal entries, was conducted. Findings suggest that change mechanisms have to be understood in the context of participants’ enhanced self-awareness during coaching, and the process of co-creating solutions and building a coaching relationship through mutual understanding and appreciation. While disentangling mechanisms and effects may not always be possible, we discuss useful strategies in coaching performing artists to manage performance anxiety. 

INTRODUCTION: Not being able to manage performance anxiety and subsequently experiencing a decline in performance have been called "choking under pressure". High trait anxiety and fear of negative evaluation, as well as low self-efficacy or self-confidence, can put performers especially at risk of experiencing choking. This study, therefore, examined the effects of psychological choking interventions tailored to "choking-susceptible" performing artists individually in a coaching setting.

METHODS: We conducted a mixed-methods (QUANT + QUAL) collective case study with nine performing artists, who each received five individual coaching sessions. The tailored choking interventions comprised acclimatization training, goal setting, and pre-performance routines, including elements such as imagery, self-talk, and relaxation techniques. Before and after the 10-week intervention phase, they filled in questionnaires on trait performance anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, and self-efficacy, performed in front of a jury, and were interviewed about their experiences. Transcripts of interviews and coaching sessions were analyzed using thematic analysis. Heart rate measurements, weekly performance videos, and expert evaluations were also part of our comprehensive data.

RESULTS: Quantitative data showed reductions in performance anxiety and fear of negative evaluation, and increases in self-efficacy and performance quality, from before to after the intervention phase. Most participants also had a lower heart rate when performing for the jury. Themes from qualitative analysis comprised managing nervousness and feeling more relaxed, becoming more self-confident, satisfaction with artistic and mental performance, feeling good and enjoying performing, and general positive effects.

CONCLUSION: Tailoring psychological interventions may provide several benefits for choking-susceptible performing artists.

Mental imagery is the creation or re-creation of experiences in the mind and it is a common, yet under-researched area in dance. Indeed, although sport and exercise researchers have imagery measurement tools designed for their respective settings, no such tool has existed for dance. Having a valid and reliable questionnaire can produce information to form the basis for successful interventions to enhance both performance and well-being. Thus, the aim of this series of three studies was to create a questionnaire capable of assessing the frequency with which dancers image, entitled the Dance Imagery Questionnaire (DIQ). Studies 1 and 2 are primarily concerned with measurement development, while Study 3 also presents data that may be of more applied interest. A total of 1,068 female and male dancers from 25 dance forms and six experience levels (beginner to professional) participated in three cross-sectional questionnaire-based studies. There were 501 dancers in Study 1 (aged 23.26 ± 10.25 years), 317 dancers in Study 2 (aged 21.96 ± 6.63 years), and 250 dancers in Study 3 (aged 23.82 ± 9.16 years). Study 1 employed principal components analyses to determine that the DIQ consisted of 3 components: technique, mastery and goals, and role and movement quality. It was apparent that the mastery and goals component could also potentially split into two, producing a four-component solution. In Study 2, DIQ data were subjected to confirmatory factor analyses, from which a hierarchical solution emerged, with one higher-order factor and four second-order factors. The third study re-confirmed the hierarchical structure of the DIQ with a separate sample, and established the test-retest reliability of the questionnaire. Concurrent validity information is also provided concerning the relationships between dance imagery, imagery ability, self-confidence, and anxiety.

The effects of imagery direction on self-efficacy and performance in a dart throwing task were examined. Two imagery types were investigated: skill-based cognitive specific (CS) and confidence-based motivational general-mastery (MG-M). Seventy-five novice dart throwers were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: (a) facilitative imagery, (b) debilitative imagery, or (c) control. After 2 imagery interventions, the debilitative imagery group rated their self-efficacy significantly lower than the facilitative group and performed significantly worse than either the facilitative group or the control group. Efficacy ratings remained constant across trials for the facilitative group, but decreased significantly for both the control group and the debilitative group. Performance remained constant for the facilitative and the control groups but decreased significantly for the debilitative group. Similar to Short et al. (2002), our results indicate that both CS and MG-M imagery can affect self-efficacy and performance.

In-depth semistructured interviews were conducted with 14 male and female professional dancers from several dance forms. Interviews were primarily based in the 4 Ws framework (Munroe, Giacobbi, Jr., Hall, & Weinberg, 2000), which meant exploring Where, When, Why, and What dancers image. A dimension describing How the dancers employed imagery also emerged. What refers to imagery content, and emerged from two categories: Imagery Types and Imagery Characteristics. Why represents the reason an image is employed and emerged from five categories: Cognitive Reasons, Motivational Reasons, Artistic Reasons,  Healing Reasons, and No reason – Triggered Imagery. There were also large individual differences reported regarding What images were used and Why. Many new insights were gained, including several imagery types and reasons not commonly discussed in sport and exercise.

A series of two studies was undertaken to investigate the development of imagery among dancers and how dance teachers might affect the imagery development process. The first study is reported here, the second in Part II. For the present study, in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 female (n = 9) and male (n = 5) professional dancers from a range of ages and dance forms. The recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim and content-analyzed with NVivo 4.0. Results fell into three categories: Early Experiences, Teachers, and Imagery Changes. Findings included few dancers having been taught about imagery, and that dancers often preferred teachers who gave plenty of images so that each dancer could use images that suited his or her own needs. As dancers became more accomplished, imagery typically changed toward more frequent, complex, and kinesthetic images. Suggestions for further research and ideas for practical application are provided.

The present study was undertaken to investigate the development of imagery among dancers. To effectively extend the results presented in Part I, the main topics emerging from the interviews in that study were investigated quantitatively. Participants were 250 female (n = 218) and male (n = 27) dancers from various dance types and ranging from recreational to professional in standard. Dancers perceived their images to have improved both in quantity and quality across their years in dance, with qualitative changes including improved complexity, control, structure, deliberation, and sensory involvement. Several differences existed between experience levels. In particular, higher-level dancers reported having been encouraged to image more frequently and being given more metaphorical images in classes more often than lower-level dancers, both when they first started dancing and at present. Altogether, the study might have implications for dance teachers as well as for dancers and researchers.

Predictions from the applied model of imagery use (Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999) were tested by examining the perceived effectiveness of five imagery types in serving specific functions. Potential moderation effects of this relationship by imagery ability and perspective were also investigated. Participants were 155 athletes from 32 sports, and materials included a chart for rating imagery effectiveness constructed specifically for the study as well as a modified version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998). Results supported the predictions for cognitive but not motivational imagery types, and MG‐M imagery was perceived to be the most effective imagery type for motivational functions. Significant differences existed between imagery types regarding frequency and ease of imaging. The relationship between frequency and effectiveness was not moderated by imagery ability or perspective, and athletes who imaged more frequently found imagery more effective and easier to do.

Imagery use was examined within the deliberate practice framework (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993). Athletes (N = 150) from three competitive levels (recreational, intermediate, and elite) completed an adapted version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998). Each SIQ item was scored for frequency, deliberation, relevance, concentration, and enjoyment. Eight SIQ items were deemed to be deliberate practice: five cognitive-specific images, two cognitive-general images, and one motivational general-mastery image. Motivational-specific imagery instead resembled deliberate play (Côté, Baker, & Abernethy, 2003). Elite and intermediate athletes used imagery more frequently and deliberately and perceived imagery to be more relevant and requiring more concentration than recreational athletes. Differences also existed regarding how deliberately the athletes engaged in various imagery types. The findings may inform applied practitioners regarding differences in imagery use between competitive levels and differences in the characteristics of imagery types.

The topic of sport psychology is hardly new—but Essentials of Dance Psychology applies it to dance in a way that sets it apart from all other sport psychology texts available to dance students, instructors, and professionals.

Through Essentials of Dance Psychology, readers will come to understand why dancers think and behave as they do and how to design healthy, creative dance environments that lead to both well-being and optimal performance.

The book is built on a foundation of evidence from dance and sport psychology research, with applied experiences used as examples throughout. Where appropriate, evidence from other areas of psychology—for example, cognitive behavioral therapy—is used. A thorough coverage of topics relevant to dancers, teachers, and others working to support dancers is included, making the book suitable for one slightly longer course or two short courses in introductory dance psychology.

The book is organized into four parts. Part I delves into dancers’ individual differences, examining how personality, perfectionism, self-esteem, self-confidence, and anxiety factor into performance and well-being. Part II explores topics related to dance-specific characteristics such as motivation, attentional focus, and creativity. In part III, readers learn about a range of psychological skills, including mindfulness, goal setting, self-regulation, and imagery. Part IV examines topics related to dance environments and challenges, zeroing in on the social aspects of teaching and learning dance, the challenges of talent identification and development, injuries, body image, and disordered eating.

Essentials of Dance Psychology offers readers the opportunity to understand sport psychology from the vantage point of a dancer. The text will help develop dance teachers who are able to inspire and sustain high levels of performance and psychological health among dancers. It will also help other professionals who work with dancers to implement evidence-based practices that enhance and sustain dancers’ lives and careers. [Text from publisher]

Att som danselev ha en hög perfektionistisk strävan är tveeggat. Det kan å ena sidan bidra till utveckling och framgång inom yrket, men även leda till överarbete, rigiditet och ökad skaderisk. Implicita inlärningstekniker kan minska det perfektionistiska tänkandet och göra balansgången lättare, skriver Sanna Nordin-Bates, Fil Dr. i Idrottsvetenskap vid GIH.

The extent to which creativity and perfection can be considered compatible aims for dancers was investigated. Also investigated were how creativity and perfectionism are (a) nurtured vs. inhibited, and (b) related to basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness). Seventy-seven ballet students (12-19 years) completed standardized questionnaires, and eight were recruited for interview. Additionally, five teachers were interviewed.

It was found that flexible perfectionistic strivings (PS) were seen to support creativity while rigid PS and perfectionistic concerns (PC) were seen as inhibiting. Creative work was proposed to reduce PC. Creativity appeared to be nurtured when basic needs were met and via inspiration and imagery; this was experienced more in contemporary dance. Perfectionism appeared to be nurtured when basic needs were thwarted or unsupported, and when teachers were perfectionistic. This was experienced more in ballet. In conclusion, dance teachers who support basic needs likely support dancers’ creativity and aid in perfectionism management.

Using a case study design, we explored two ballet dancers' perfectionism experiences via interviews and questionnaires at two time points 5 years apart. They represented the two types of "pure perfectionism" in the 2 x 2 model of perfectionism: a female representing pure personal standards perfectionism (high perfectionistic strivings, low perfectionistic concerns) and a male representing pure evaluative concerns perfectionism (low perfectionistic strivings, high perfectionistic concerns). The pure personal standards perfectionism dancer reported stable perfectionism across time, seemingly resilient to any perfectionistic concerns developing. She attributed this to her stable, grounded personality, also reporting autonomous motivation and performance success. The dancer representing pure evaluative concerns perfectionism reported increased perfectionistic strivings and lowered perfectionistic concerns over time; concurrently, his motivation became less controlled and more autonomous. He described the reasons in terms of improved basic psychological needs satisfaction and personal growth. Overall, autonomy might be important in mitigating perfectionism.

A substantial body of evidence links perfectionism to well-being and performance outcomes in dancers and athletes. Yet, we know relatively little about leaders' perfectionism in dance and sport. This is important because leaders' perfectionism likely impacts both themselves and their performers. In this study, we examined relationships between leader perfectionism, their provision of basic needs support, and whether stress explains these relationships. Aesthetic activity leaders (N = 463; n = 336 dance teachers, n = 127 aesthetic sport coaches, and n = 376 female; Mean age = 35.47 and SD = 12.46 years) completed an online questionnaire measuring multidimensional perfectionism (self-oriented perfectionism, SOP; socially prescribed perfectionism, SPP; and other-oriented perfectionism, OOP), self-reported provision of basic needs support (autonomy, competence, and relatedness), and perceived stress. Correlations suggested that leaders displaying higher levels of any perfectionism dimension (SOP, SPP, and OOP) provided less support for autonomy and perceived higher levels of stress. Leaders displaying higher levels of SPP also reported providing less support for competence. Structural equation modeling revealed that perceived stress partially mediated the relationships between perfectionism and provision of basic needs support. Socially prescribed perfectionism shared a negative indirect relationship with autonomy support as well as negative direct and indirect relationships with competence support, both via perceived stress. By contrast, OOP shared positive indirect relationships with autonomy support and competence support via perceived stress. Based on these findings, it would be prudent for dance and sport organizations to minimize pressures on leaders to be perfect, help them identify how their perfectionism impacts both themselves and others, and work with them to optimize basic needs support.

This study provides the first in-depth investigation of how perfectionism is experienced in high-level dance. Seventy-seven students (M age = 15.52, SD = 2.30) completed a perfectionism questionnaire. Next, dancers with the highest and lowest levels of perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) were recruited for interview (N = 8), as representatives of the four subtypes of perfectionism in the 2 × 2 model. Distinct profiles emerged for the four quadrants of the 2 × 2 model in relation to four key themes: self-regulation, achievement goals, views on mistakes, and role of others. Dancers with high PS displayed the highest levels of self-regulation while dancers with low PC appeared most task-oriented. Dancers with high PC reported holding less favorable views on mistakes and placed greater emphasis on the opinions of others. Importantly, PS appeared to be both helpful and hurtful. Findings are discussed in relation to theory intermixed with practical recommendations.